Individual Treatment in Group Process Practice...

Individual Treatment in Group Process Practice Psychoeducational Cognitive Behavioral Group Therapy for Divorced Women Experiencing Anxiety and Depression Amy Danowski CNSL/561 August 20, 2012 Donna Clark Assessment: Clinical interview Diagnosis: Axis I 300.02 Generalized Anxiety Disorder 296.23 Major Depressive Disorder, Single Episode, Severe without Psychotic Features Axis II V71.09 No diagnosis Axis III None Axis IV Problems with primary support group, problems related to the social environment, occupational problems, problems related to interaction with the legal system Axis V GAF 50 (current); GAF 91 (highest past year) Presented Problem: Patient is experiencing depressed mood for†¦show more content†¦Divorce shatters a women s self esteem. The support of family and friends is very important; however it is very healing to share experiences and gain insight from those who have been through this unique type of grief. Patients need assistance to get to the place of acceptance and find closure in order to move on. What is Psychoeducation The concept of psychoeducation was first noted in the medical literature, in an article by John E. Donley Psychotherapy and re-education in The Journal of Abnormal Psychology, published in 1911. It wasn t until 30 years later that the first use of the word psychoeducation appeared in the medical literature in title of the book The psychoeducational clinic by Brian E. Tomlinson. This book was published in 1941 (Lambert, Bergin Garfield, 2004). The popularization and development of the term psychoeducation into its current form is widely attributed to the American researcher C.M . Anderson in 1980 in the context of the treatment of schizophrenia. Her research concentrated on educating relatives concerning the symptoms and the process of the schizophrenia. Also, her research focused on the stabilization of social authority and on the improvement in handling of the family members among themselves. Finally, C.M. Anderson s research included more effective stress management techniques. Psychoeducation in behavior therapy has its origin in the patient s relearning of emotional and social skills. In the last few

Case Study Assignment Patient Profile And Background...

Case Study Assignment for Unit 1 Diane Vinciguerra Jacksonville University March 6, 2015 Case Study Assignment for Unit 1 Patient Profile and Background Information Mrs. J. arrives at the emergency department with her 6 year old son, PJ, who has a history of Cystic Fibrosis (CF). He is febrile (101.7 ° F orally), BP 98/66, HR 122, RR 32 with the use of accessory muscles. Mother states PJ has, for the last five days, exhibited signs and symptoms of upper respiratory infection, runny nose, low grade fever, cough, and fatigue. He has lost 2 pounds over the past 5 days due to anorexia though he has not had vomiting. He weighs 36 pounds and height is 3’2†. Today, PJ became more lethargic and his fever was difficult to control with pyretics. PJ was diagnosed at 8 months of age with CF when he failed to gain weight though his appetite was good. He had frequent (5-6) pale, foul-smelling stools daily for several months leading to Mrs. J seeking an evaluation. He also seemed â€Å"frequently sick† with URI, bronchitis, and coughs. On average, PJ is hospitalized twice a year for lung or GI re lated symptoms. Question 1: Explain the pathophysiologic defect of Cystic Fibrosis. As a result of Cystic Fibrosis, the body produces unusually sticky and thick mucus that has the following effects. It makes the lungs clog with significant exposure to lung infection which threatens life. It also causes obstruction of the pancreas and prevents natural enzymes in their role ofShow MoreRelatedHcs 335 Administrative Paper1338 Words   |  6 PagesHead: PATIENT PRIVACY Patient Privacy By: University of phoenix Patient privacy has been a major concern for patients and medical staff for many years. Patient privacy goes hand in hand with HIPPA and the privacy rule. This protects the privacy of any person of all health information (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2010). 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Startegic Analysis (Sherwin Williams) Free Essays

The Sherwin-Williams Company SHW (NYSE) Strategic Analysis ————————————————- SWOT ANALYSIS StrengthsWeaknesses Strong financial performanceHigh debt to equity ratio Wide product portfolioIncrease in current liabilities Strong market presence OpportunitiesThreats Global demand for coatings market Consolidation in chemical industry Opening new storesForeign exchange risks Strategic acquisitionEnvironmental regulations The Sherwin-Williams Company is viewed as one of the leading paint manufacturing and retailing companies in the US. Some of their key strengths are a strong market presence, wide product portfolio, and strong financial performance. Some major areas of concern are a high debt to equity ratio and increasing current liabilities. We will write a custom essay sample on Startegic Analysis (Sherwin Williams) or any similar topic only for you Order Now Going forward, the risks associated with foreign exchange risk, environmental regulations, and consolidation in chemical industry may impede its business growth. However, ample growth opportunities for the company are obtainable through strategic acquisition, opening new stores and increasing global market for coatings. Strengths: Strong financial performance FY2010 reflected an impressive financial performance for the company. They registered total revenue of US$7,776. 42 million in the FY2010, up 9. 62% on an annual basis from US$7,094. 25 million in the FY2009. The increase in revenue was principally due to the acquisition of two industrial wood finishes businesses(Sayerlack and Becker Acroma). These two acquisitions increased revenues for FY2010 by more than US$440 million. Also, their operating profit increased by 8. 82% from US$622. 82 million in the FY2009, to US$677. 78 million in the FY2010. Simultaneously, the company net income increase by 6. 11% to US$462. 49 million in the FY2010 from US$435. 5 million in the FY2009. Based on such strong financial performance, the company can aggressively pursue its growth and expansion plans. Wide product portfolio Having a broad business portfolio helps the company to serve the diverse needs of its customer base. Sherwin-Williams develops, produces, distributes and retails paints, coatings and related products. They also produce paints, stains, painting tools and equipments for a wide variety of customers such as residential and commercial builders, architectural and industrial painting contractors, property owners and managers. Their portfolio includes products for their Paint Stores group segment, Consumer Group segment, and the Global Finishes Group segment. In addition to its merchandise offerings, it also provides painting related services such as color sampling, wood finishing systems and services, inventory management and equipment repairs. This broad product portfolio has allowed them to obtain a higher market share and increase their revenues. Strong market presence A strong market position allows them to attract a huge customer base, ensuring strong top-line performance. Sherwin-Williams is one of leading manufacturers in the coating industry in the US. In Europe, their subsidiaries, Sayerlack and Becker Acroma are recognized as the leading coating companies. Another subsidiary, Pinturas Condor is the largest paint and coatings company in Ecuador. The company offers a wide portfolio of market leading brands such as Sherwin-Williams, ProMar, SuperPaint, A-100, Duron, PrepRite, Duration, Master Hide, ProClassic, Classic 99, MAB, Columbia and ExpressTech. Such a strong market presence of the company helps it to generate increased demand for its offerings, driving the revenue. Weaknesses: High debt to equity ratio This ratio may place the company in a risky position in paying off its high interests. Their debt to equity ratio was 70. 12 in the FY2010, which was much higher than Chemicals – Commodity industry’s average debt to equity ratio of 29. 91. The increased debt to equity ratio was due to 27. 79% annual increase in debt, from US$817. 61 million at the end of the FY2009 to US$1,044. 79 million at the end of the FY2010. This higher debt to equity ratio compared to the industry may indicate that the company’s poor ability to meet its obligations, which in turn may affect its business operations. Increase in current liabilities Substantial increase in current liabilities weakened the company’s liquidity position. Its current liabilities were US$2,063. 94 million at the end of FY2010, a 48. 09% increase compared to the previous year. However, its current assets recorded a marginal increase of 25. 07% – from US$1,770. 02 million at the end of FY2009 to US$2,213. 72 million at the end of FY2010. Following this, the company’s current ratio declined from 1. 27 at the end of the FY2009 to 1. 07 at the end of FY2010. A lower current ratio indicates that the company is in a weak financial position, and it may find it difficult to meet its day-to-day obligations. Opportunities: Global demand for coatings market The growing market for global coatings will certainly benefit the company. Market analysts expect the global coatings market to reach US$98. 69 billion by 2015. This expected increase is primarily due to economic activity, rapid industrialization, and increasing demand from automotive and construction sectors in developing countries. The Asian market is also forecast to increase at a compounded annual growth rate of 4. 2% through 2015. Being a manufacturer of paints and coatings, the company can tap this growing market. Opening new stores The company’s expansion plans of new stores will attract huge customer base. During the FY2010, the company’s Paint Group segment opened 49 new stores, of which 40 in the US, six in Canada, two in Trinidad and one in Jamaica. Also, during the FY2001, the company increased its total stores to 3,390 compared to 3,354 in the FY2009. For FY2011, the company is planning to open 50 to 60 new stores. This expansion plan will provide competitive edge over its peers in the industry. Strategic acquisition Their focus on expanding its global presence will provide further growth opportunities. As an example, the company acquired Becker Industrial Products AB in September 2010, one of the largest manufacturers of industrial wood coatings globally. Becker Acroma operates nine manufacturing facilities, 19 mixing sites and 13 technical centers around the world. This acquisition will allow them to expand its quality products and customer service while also strengthening its growing global platform to better serve customers around the world with outstanding technology, assets, and people. Strategic acquisitions such as this will enhance the company’s global expansion, ensuring top-line performance. Threats: Consolidation in chemical industry Merger and acquisition activities in the chemical industry could present a potential threat. The global chemical MA deals are expected to be more active in 2011. In the first three quarters of 2010, total global chemical MA transactions amounted to US$32 billion, which was higher than full year 2009 value of US$25. 4 billion. Sherwin-Williams may face competition from its peers, which are financially and operationally stronger, apart from becoming a target of such MA deals. Foreign exchange risks Because they operate in many parts of the world, they are exposed to the fluctuations in foreign exchange rates. Their business operations are conducted in many currencies worldwide. Significant part of its revenue is denominated in other currencies such as the Russian Ruble, Euro, Brazil Real, Chile peso, and Japan Yen, among others. Although the company has forward currency contracts, there can be no assurance that such hedging activities or measures will significantly limit the impact of movements in exchange rates on the company’s results of operations. As a result, a loss of US$3. 82 million and US$2. 84 million was reports in FY2010 and FY2009 respectively, due to fluctuations in foreign currency exchange rates. If the same scenario occurs, the company’s business and results of operations may be adversely affected. Environmental regulations These regulations may be affected by the environmental regulations governing the global chemical industry. REACH (Registration Evaluation and Authorization of Chemicals) is an example of the stringent environmental regulations that are set to affect chemical producers. REACH regulates the products manufactured and marketed in Europe by mandating that all companies develop and submit dossiers containing datasets about their chemical products and detail their potential impact and risk on environment. This could be a challenge while launching a new product as it is a time-consuming and expensive process. It could also result in phasing out many existing chemicals from the market, which may be regarded as toxic and hazardous. REACH directly applies to over 30,000 different chemical substances that are produced or sold in Europe and its implementation is expected to cost European chemical industry about US$3 billion. Regulations for other countries are expected to follow the same model. Similar regulations have already been implemented in the US with the reform of Toxic Substances Control Act. Such stringent environmental regulations could affect both existing and new products for the company. KEY PERSONNEL Christopher M. Connor, Chairman, Chief Executive Officer Since 2000, ? Age 54 Mr. Connor has been the Chairman of the company, since 2000 and has also been the Chief Executive Officer since 1999. From 2005 to 2006, he served as the President of the company and was the vice chairman from 1999 to 2000. He served as the President, Paint Stores Group of Sherwin-Williams from 1997 to 1999. He is also a Director of Eaton Corporation and National City Corporation. John G. Morikis, Chief Operating Officer, President Since 2006, ? Age 47 Mr. Morikis has been the President and the Chief Operating Officer of the company, since 2006. Prior to this, he served as the President, Paint Stores Group from 1999 to 2006. He joined the company in December 1984. Sean P. Hennessy, Chief Financial Officer – Finance, Senior Vice President Since 2002, ? Age 53 Mr. Hennessy has been the Chief Financial Officer the company, since 2002. He has also been the Senior Vice President – Finance of the company, since August 2001. Mr. Hennessy joined the company in September 1984. CORPORATE CULTURE AND SOCIETAL EXPECTATIONS/RESPONSIBILITIES Corporate Culture Sherwin Williams has a positive corporate culture and through education assistance is willing to give its employees the skills to become what they would like to be. Additionally they have excellent training that is provided in a scheduled manner to make sure that everyone has the up to date information. They also have cutting edge technology that facilitates the sales process. Sherwin-Williams has been recognized among Fortune Magazine’s 100 Best Companies to Work For in 2005, 2006, and 2008. Seven core values drive their culture and guide Sherwin-Williams as a team and as a company. These values are Integrity, People, Service, Quality, Performance, Innovation and Growth. The company ensures that these values are reflected in their people, their products, and their business practices and relationships. They also provide opportunities for advancement. More than 90% of placements into managerial and professional positions in the Paint Stores Group come from within the company. Over 700 college recruits are hired every year into their Management/Sales Training Program and receive training in different divisions and functions. Sherwin-Williams is also well respected for their benefits package. Is considered one of the best in the business. Besides the common short-term benefits like health and dental insurance, they also offer benefits that grow over a lifetime. They offer: * Health ; Dental Insurance * Group Life ; Accidental Death ; Dismemberment Insurance * Supplemental Life Insurance * Voluntary Personal Accident Insurance Disability Insurance (Short ; Long-term) * Matching 401(k) and Pension Programs * Vacation and Holidays * Employee Discount Program * Tuition Aid * Adoption Assistance Societal Expectations Sherwin-Williams believes that it is their calling to manufacture and market innovative products while still operating a safe, clean and friendly workplace and observing the highest ethical standards in business. In 2009, they presented their first, Corporate Social Responsibility Report — a report that demonstrated the actions behind their beliefs. To them, Corporate Social Responsibility means to act in a way that reduces their impact on the world around us. They believe they have the most comprehensive line of environmentally responsible products. They also have a number of other brands sold around the world that seek to reduce their impact on the environment. Sherwin-Williams believes it’s important to participate in healthy discussions — and create action plans — with input from those around them. That is why they are actively engaged with government agencies and industry organizations that value sustainable practices as much as they do. Some of these agencies are: * U. S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Climate Leaders Program * National Paint ; Coatings Association Coatings Care Program * CLEARCorps National Lead Extraction Program * EPA Smart Ways Fuel Efficient Transportation Program * U. S. Green Building Council * National Association of Home Builders — Green Building Council In July 2008, Sherwin-Williams launched EcoVision, an internal company-wide initiative that challenges every employee to look for and implement ways to reduce the company’s impact on the environment. The programs mission is to assist Sherwin-Williams to be recognized as a leader in the development of sustainable processes, product and activities that are profitable, preserve natural resources, and contribute to social improvement. Their contribution to social improvement has been demonstrated through The Sherwin-Williams Foundation. In 2007, the Foundation launched the Sherwin-Williams Grant, a $50,000 cash award given annually to a charity committed to either children’s health or educational programs that lead to economic independence. How to cite Startegic Analysis (Sherwin Williams), Papers

Issey Ogata as funny as Japan gets Essay Example For Students

Issey Ogata: as funny as Japan gets Essay The theatre writers in Tokyos English newspapers started to call Issey Ogata a Japanese Woody Allen nine months ago, when he began the build-up to his American debut in New York. Ever since his first special show for an English-speaking audience last winter in Kyoto brought down the house, the comparison-makers have been busy trying to find familiar angles that will help Ogatas New York audiences appreciate the verve and artistry of this beloved Everyman with a Thousand Faces who may be Japans most versatile and gifted comedian. Hes not Woody Allen, though some of his 200 characterslike the salary-man who cant remember his name and tries to rediscover his identity by looking through car license numbers in the parking lot and business cards in his pocketdo fit the early Allen mold of stressed-out urbanites disoriented by technology, computers, even simple arithmetic. Another easy comparison is with Garrison Keillor, for Ogata has created enough eccentric but thoroughly believable souls to populate an entire small comic universe. Other comparisons will surely abound, as Ogata gets ready to brave the Big Apple in three performances of his one-man show A Catalogue of City Life at the Japan Society Sept. 30-Oct. 2, and perhaps (with the aid of a headset translation system, using English texts by Jonah Salz of the NOHO Theater Group, and narrated by Mark Laurence Cole) become the first Japanese solo performer to make it overseas. The essence of Ogatas comedy is hard to capture because it belongs to the spirit of a vanishing tradition in which the art of the comedian was to create a variety of characters who were unusual enough to be laughable, yet plain and human enough to draw sympathy and understandingand thereby give comedy its classic medicinal value, its glimpses of the deep, sad truth under all the jokes. The rarest kind of actor Theres no way to define Ogata. Take a liter each of Chaplin, Sellers, Ernie Kovacs, Robin Williams and whoever else cracks you up the most, mix at dizzying speed in a very flexible container, and let it serve itself. Hes an anomaly in Japan, too. Unlike American actors, who can move freely from one show and cast to the next, actors in group-centered Japan can spend decades, even an entire career, in the same gekidan, and accept (or endure) the guidance (or tyranny) of a powerful artistic director. An unattached actor, like a ronina masterless samuraiis rare. An actor who doesnt try or even wish to fit in, but confidently makes up his own voice as he goes along, is rarer still. And an actor who writes and paints as well as he plays, and passes up countless chances in film and TV to work on stage, is the rarest of all. Ogata was born in 1952 in the southern city of Fukuoka, went to Tokyo at 19 and soon met director Yuzo Morita, whos been his main creative partner ever since. This Beckettian pairthe tiger of a former actor, incapacitated in one leg and unable to move as he once did, and the chameleon who needs a longer eye to find the next branch or butterflyworked on several stage plays, then created their first program of one-character sketches in 1981. A new field of opportunity opened up after Ogata won the gold medal on a TV comedy competition, A Comedian Is Born. Hes been prolific ever since, acting mostly on stage and publishing collections of scripts and short stories. His usual program consists of half a dozen sketches, each five to thirty minutes long. The best characters in his growing repertoirethe cabaret manager trying to train an inept staff, the fake scout for a modeling agency, the nervous father who tries so hard to make his family enjoy their vacation that he drives them all up the shoji, the cheating husband who wants to break with his mistress, but hasnt the fiber to do itare all so cleanly chiseled, so utterly convincing that hes built a loyal audience, especially among younger Japanese who are bored with the usual electric toyshop of todays Japanese entertainment. .uf38c18b040f67d1bffdcd7f2b5788a28 , .uf38c18b040f67d1bffdcd7f2b5788a28 .postImageUrl , .uf38c18b040f67d1bffdcd7f2b5788a28 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .uf38c18b040f67d1bffdcd7f2b5788a28 , .uf38c18b040f67d1bffdcd7f2b5788a28:hover , .uf38c18b040f67d1bffdcd7f2b5788a28:visited , .uf38c18b040f67d1bffdcd7f2b5788a28:active { border:0!important; } .uf38c18b040f67d1bffdcd7f2b5788a28 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .uf38c18b040f67d1bffdcd7f2b5788a28 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .uf38c18b040f67d1bffdcd7f2b5788a28:active , .uf38c18b040f67d1bffdcd7f2b5788a28:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .uf38c18b040f67d1bffdcd7f2b5788a28 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .uf38c18b040f67d1bffdcd7f2b5788a28 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .uf38c18b040f67d1bffdcd7f2b5788a28 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .uf38c18b040f67d1bffdcd7f2b5788a28 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .uf38c18b040f67d1bffdcd7f2b5788a28:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .uf38c18b040f67d1bffdcd7f2b5788a28 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .uf38c18b040f67d1bffdcd7f2b5788a28 .uf38c18b040f67d1bffdcd7f2b5788a28-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .uf38c18b040f67d1bffdcd7f2b5788a28:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: From the Bowery to Broadway: Lew Fields and the Roots of American Popular Culture EssayEarnest souls with heart and humor to spare Much of the fun is in the sheer simplicity of Ogatas act. He plays each piece with minimal props and furniture under plain, abstract lighting. At stage right are a coat rack, table and mirror where the actor changes, drawing a new character with a stroke of his comb and a change of his coat. Ogatas signature characters are the ones who never quite see how much of the quirky truth about themselves theyre giving away, whose honest efforts to solve bizarre problems with little or no help from anyone else reveal more loneliness and confusion than they imagine. These are earnest souls who find the heart and humor to keep going in a world that isnt really hostile, but does seem to get increasingly complicated and strange. Issey Ogatas characters may be typically Japanese, yet audiences in New York, and next spring in France and Germany, are about to discover that ordinary Japanese can be universally recognizable and lovableand far goofier than anyone imagined.

Government Spending Essays (2598 words) - , Term Papers

Government Spending As many Federal departments and agencies lurch into an era of running without funds, the leaders of both parties of Congress are spending less and less time searching for a compromise to balance the budget, and more and more time deciding how to use it to their advantage on the campaign trail. Meanwhile money is easily borrowed to pay for government overhead. In an attempt to change this, on June 29, Congress voted in favor of HConRes67 that called for a 7 year plan to balance the Federal Budget by the year 2002 (Hager 1899). This would be done by incorporating $894 billion in spending cuts by 2002, with a projected 7 year tax cut of $245 billion. If this plan were implemented, in the year 2002, the U.S. Government would have the first balanced budget since 1969. There is doubt by citizens that a balanced budget will become reality. A recent Gallop Poll from January, 1996 showed the budget as the #1 concern among taxpayers, but 4/5 of those interviewed said they doubt the GOP will do the job (Holding 14). Meanwhile, an ABC poll from November reported that over 70% of those polled disapprove of the current performance by Congress, and most blamed politicians for failure to take action (Cloud 3709). These accusations of failure to follow through come with historical proof that Congress and Clinton have failed to compromise and resolve the issue. After all, current budget plans are dependent on somewhat unrealistic predictions of avoiding such catastrophes as recession, national disasters, etc., and include minor loopholes. History has shown that every budget agreement that has failed was too lax. One might remember the Gramm-Rudman-Hollings bill that attempted to balance the budget, but left too many exemptions, and was finally abandoned in 1990 (Weinberger 33). So after a pain-staking trial for GOP Republicans to create, promote, and pass their budget, as promised on campaign trail 94, Clinton rejected the very bill he demanded. This essentially brought the federal budget back to square one. Clinton thought such a demand on Republicans to produce a budget would produce inner-party quarrels and cause the GOP to implode. Instead, they produced a fiscal budget that passed both houses of Congress, only to be stalemated by a stubborn Democratic President Clinton. Meanwhile, Clinton bounced back with a CBO scored plan with lighter, less risky cuts to politically sensitive areas like entitlements. Clinton's plan also saved dollars for education and did not include a tax increase, but most cuts would not take effect until he is out of office, in the year 2001. Although Clinton is sometimes criticized for producing a stalemate in budget talks, the White House points out that the debt has gone down since Clinton took office, with unemployment also falling. Republicans are quick to state that Clinton originally increased taxes in 1993 and cut defense programs, but his overall plan was for an increasing budget without deficit reduction. Startling Facts about the budget: As of 1996, the national debt was at an all time high of $5 trillion dollars, with interest running at a whopping $250 billion per year (Rau M-1). This equals out to an individual responsibility of more than $50,000 per taxpayer. Nearly 90% of that debt has accumulated since 1970, and between 1980 and 1995, the debt grew by 500%. Currently, the debt grows by more than $10,000 per second (Rau M-l), and at current rates, a baby born in 1992 will pay 71% of his or her income in net taxes. At current rates, our government is about to reach its breaking point. If that's not enough to scare a taxpayer, by 2002, 60% of government spending will be for entitlements, and by 2012, these programs are projected to take up all government revenue (Dentzer 32). Not only economic development, but also family income is hurt by debt. With the cost of living going up, it becomes harder to find a job. According to the Concord Coalition, real wages peaked in 1973 and have gone down ever since. If the economy grew as fast as it did in 1950, without a debt, the median family income would be $50,000, compared to the present median of $35,000 (Rau M-1). As of current fiscal year's budget, the United States government spends $1.64 trillion yearly. $500 billion of that, or 1/3 of the total, is for discretionary spending (Rau M-1). This discretionary spending is the target for most cuts, and seems to be the easiest to make cuts in. Overall, the difference between the

Rise of Russian Business Elite Essay Example

Rise of Russian Business Elite Essay Example Rise of Russian Business Elite Essay Rise of Russian Business Elite Essay Communist and Post-Communist Studies 38 (2005) 293e307 www. elsevier. com/locate/postcomstud The rise of the Russian business elite Olga Kryshtanovskaya a, Stephen White b,* a Institute of Sociology, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia b Department of Politics, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK Available online 24 August 2005 Abstract The early 1990s saw the formation of a new group of Russian property owners, often derivative of the late Soviet nomenklatura. The richest and most in? uential were known as oligarchs, and they established a dominant position in the later years of the Yeltsin presidency. Only 15% of the 1993 business elite still retained their position by 2001, after the 1998 devaluation of the currency. Those who took their place were younger, less metropolitan, better educated and more likely to have a background in government, including many who had enjoyed ministerial status. The new business elite is less personally ambitious, but its political in? uence is no less considerable and its representation in decision-making bodies has more than doubled over the post-communist period. The logic of development is towards a concentration of economic power in the hands of 20e25 large conglomerates in a politically subordinate association with government, along South Korean lines. O 2005 Published by Elsevier Ltd on behalf of The Regents of the University of California. Keywords: Business; Elite; Oligarchy; Russia Introduction The Soviet system allowed di? erences of income and private accumulations of wealth. But it did not permit the private ownership of factories and farms, or even of * Corresponding author. Tel. : C44 141 330 5352; fax: C44 141 330 5071. E-mail address: s. [emailprotected] gla. ac. uk (S. White). 967-067X/$ see front matter O 2005 Published by Elsevier Ltd on behalf of The Regents of the University of California. doi:10. 1016/j. postcomstud. 2005. 06. 002 294 O. Kryshtanovskaya, S. White / Communist and Post-Communist Studies 38 (2005) 293e307 small businesses; living o? the labour of others was ‘exploitation’, and a criminal o? ence . These restrictions were being relaxed even before the end of communist rule, and a central feature of the policies that were followed under Boris Yeltsin after his election as Russia’s ? rst president in the summer of 1991 was the shift of productive resources from the state to private individuals. We must’, Yeltsin insisted, ‘provide economic freedom, lift all barriers to the freedom of enterprises and of entrepreneurship and give people the opportunity to work and to receive as much as they can, casting o? all bureaucratic constraints’ (Yeltsin, 1992: p. 6). In line with these policies, successive programmes of privatisation transferred state property into private hands; income di? erentials widened rapidly; and at the top, a new group of super-rich emerged, whose assets commanded respect not just within Russia itself but internationally. They became known as the ‘oligarchs’, with resources that typically combined banking, sections of industry and the mass media. 1 There were 15 of these wealthy magnates, and every Russian knew their names: Rem Vyakhirev, Boris Berezovsky, Vladimir Gusinsky, Vagit Alekperov, Vladimir Potanin, Mikhail Fridman, Mikhail Khodorkovsky and others. For 3 years, from 1995 to 1998, their power and their ratings rose steadily. Within government itself they had their ‘own’ ministers, o? cials and deputies. Berezovsky claimed personally to have secured the re-election of Boris Yeltsin in 1996 through the media campaign he had sponsored (Financial Times 1 November 1996: p. 17). He was known to be a member of the ‘Family’, the inner group around Yeltsin’s younger daughter who appeared to exercise decisive in? uence in the presidential court. Indeed it began to appear as if the state itself had been ‘privatised’, and that all important decisions were being taken by a small group of ? nancial magnates. It was certainly true that many of the country’s key positions were occupied by creatures of the major corporations, and that Duma parties were ? ling their foreign accounts by pushing through the kind of agreements the oil barons found most advantageous; some even did well out of the Chechen war. Who, asked analysts, really ruled the countrydpoliticians or businessmen? The crisis of August 1998, when Russia defaulted on its international debts and the rouble was in e? ect devalued, had profound e? ects throughout Russian public life, and no less upon its social structure. Some of the oligarchs were ruined (including Vladimir Vinogradov of Inkombank and Alexander Smolensky of SBSAgro); a few withdrew from public life, and others sought refuge abroad. Equally, There is already a considerable literature. In English, see for instance Khlebnikov (2000), Silverman and Yanowitch (2000), Rutland (2001), Ho? man (2002), and de Vries et al. (2004). In Russian, see Kukolev (1995a, b, 1996), Kryshtanovskaya (1996, 2002a, b) (on which we have drawn), Pappe (2000), and Mukhin (2001, 2004). The research that is reported in this paper was assisted by the Economic and Social Research Council under grant R000220127 in association with the Ministry of Defence under grant JGC902. Research on Russian business leaders has been conducted in the Elites Department of the Institute of Sociology of the Russian Academy of Sciences on the basis of a consistent methodology since 1993. In each case, an expert survey is used to identify a number of named members of the business elite (in 1993 there were 115 such names, and in 2001 there were 119); in a second stage, the biographies of these entrepreneurs are subjected to a more detailed analysis on the basis of interview as well as published data. 1 O. Kryshtanovskaya, S. White / Communist and Post-Communist Studies 38 (2005) 293e307 295 here were changes in the relationship between government and the business elite, particularly after the election of Vladimir Putin as president in March 2000, as the regime began to pursue a policy of ‘equal distancing’ towards them. Putin, indeed, had promised that any ‘power-hungry’ oligarchs would ‘cease to exist as a class’ (Segodnya 20 March 20 00: p. 1). But what did this mean? The beginning of a struggle by the state with the oligarchy as a whole, or just with individual oligarchs? And did this mean that private business was beginning to play a smaller role in Russian politics, or, on the contrary, that its power had increased? In what follows we look ? rst at the emergence of the business elite, and then at the structural changes that have followed the collapse of the currency. We argue that over the whole period there has been a renegotiation, but not a dissolution, of the interpenetration of business and government that de? nes an oligarchy. Identifying the business elite We de? ne the business elite as the top echelon of entrepreneurs, who thanks to their ? nancial and economic resources have a signi? cant in? uence on the taking of decisions of national importance. The business elite, for our purposes, are a much more restricted group than the country’s major businessmen, including the largest shareholders (and sometimes top managers) of the leading enterprises and banks. The owners of some Russian corporations prefer to keep their distance from politics, although the scale of their business may be very substantial. And there are others for whom politics may be their main activity. Corporations of the ? rst kind can have considerable in? uence on the national economy; corporations of the second type have more in? uence on political decision-makers, and their role in the economy itself may not be signi? ant. In other words, the possession of substantial capital is a necessary but not su? cient criterion for membership of the business elite. 2 At a certain stage in the Russian reforms the business elite could have been regarded as a part of the ruling group of the society, a result not just of the resources they controlled and their degree of in? uence, but also of their origins. The ‘Komsomol economy’ in which the current business elite originated was a creation of the Soviet nomenklatura, which became the basis for the formation of a Russian property-owning class (Mawdsley and White, 2000: pp. 95e299; Martynova, 2001: ch. 4). The relative youth of individual members of the business elite in these early Our de? nition is close to that of other scholars. For the Russian Sociological Dictionary, for instance, the ‘economic elite’ should be understood as the ‘people who control the main ? nancial-economic structures of a country independent of judicial forms of ownership’; they may be divided into the directors of state enterprises, and the ‘business elite’ proper (Osipov, 1998 p. 638). For Ashin and colleagues, the business elite is the ‘top stratum of the entrepreneurial-? ancial group of the society’ (Ashin et al. , 1999: p. 294). Zaslavskaya de? nes à ¢â‚¬Ëœoligarchs’ as ‘not only owners, but also authorised executives and those who hold signi? cant numbers of shares of the major national and international corporations, holdings and industrial-? nancial groups’ (Zaslavskaya, 2004: p. 370). There has been considerable controversy in Russian sociology about de? nitions of this kind: see for instance Toshchenko (1999). 2 296 O. Kryshtanovskaya, S. White / Communist and Post-Communist Studies 38 (2005) 293e307 eform years should not mislead us: the nomenklatura exchanged power for property, without necessarily engaging themselves in commercial activities. For the conduct of business of this kind they recruited younger associates, who were able to make use of government revenues to support their commercial initiatives. These younger associates were recruited from the party’s ‘reserve’, the Komsomol, who represented the lower level of the party-state bureaucracy in the Soviet period. Both before and after the crisis of 1998 there was a fairly substantial group of people who had a noticeable in? ence on public policy, thanks to their ? nancial resources. Their money gave them control of mass communications, the ability to fund election campaigns, assist parties and ‘purchase’ deputies, and to lobby government directly. Russia was not unusual in these respects: in the early twentieth century Michels had already formulated his ‘iron law of oligarchy’ according to which a democracy, in order to preserve itself and achieve a degree of stability, is obliged to separate out a more active minority element, or elite. For this reason, according to Michels (1959: p. 7), democracy inevitably turned into oligarchy. Writing subsequently, Miriam Beard claimed that the opportunity to achieve power was at the same time an opportunity to acquire wealth, since there were no obstacles with society that prevent the rich acquiring power for instance, through their ability to spend at election time (Beard, 1938: p. 166). Oligarchy may be de? ned as a state formation in which the major owners have not only economic power, but also enormous political in? uence. They take part in the formation of government and at the same time receive privileges from government, on which their wellbeing is dependent. An oligarchy is based on the interaction of two elite groups: the political ‘establishment’, which is ? nanced by big business and provide it with access to the most pro? table forms of entrepreneurship, and businessmen themselves. The interpenetration of power and property is expressed in the constant bargaining that takes place between both sets of actors, including the ? ? ? lling of key positions. Businessmen bring their proteges into government, and politicians after their resignation ? nd refuge in private corporations, bringing with them as a form of capital their wide network of contacts. In an oligarchic state the distance between state power and big business is minimal: it is a narrow circle in which everyone knows everyone else (Kryshtanovskaya, 1996). A de? nition of oligarchy of this kind is close but not quite identical to the one that was most widely employed in the Russian press during the 1990s, in which 10e15 businessmen were regularly named in this capacity. Unlike journalists, for whom a situational and individual analysis is important, the social scienti? c approach is a di? erent one: the oligarchy is considered as a social group whose personal composition has no particular signi? ance other than as a basis for constructing the sample to be examined. For these purposes the oligarchy is faceless, and not dependent on the replacement of one name by anotherda Gusinsky, for instance, by an Abramovich. What is at issue is not a list of the individually important, but the social relationship between the two groups who continue to constitute the Russian elite: politicians and businessmen. Accordingly, the downfall of individual oligarchs may represent not the weakening, but the strengthening of the oligarchy as a larger entity. O. Kryshtanovskaya, S. White / Communist and Post-Communist Studies 38 (2005) 293e307 297 The origins of the business elite Russia’s developing bourgeoisie has been the object of close attention over the entire post-communist period (for the use of this term see Gill, 1998). But interest was at its highest point immediately before the August 1998 crisis when it seemed that the country was being run, not by a disorganised elite under the guidance of a decrepit president, but by a small group of nouveau-riche tycoons. These were the ‘real government of Russia’, in the view of the Financial Times (K’eza, 1997: p. 98). The sociologist Tat’yana Zaslavskaya (1997: p. 54) described them as a ‘renewed oligarchy’ made up of the ‘most competent or fortunate members of the nomenklatura’, with no less power and a good deal more wealth than their Soviet predecessors. Just seven of them, according to Berezovsky himself, controlled half of the entire Russian eco nomy (Financial Times 1 November 1996: p. 17). The in? uence of this small group of Moscow businessmen steadily increased at the same time as the state itself began to disintegrate, and the country’s economic position deteriorated further. Russia’s oligarchy received an important stimulus in 1995 when the government decided to give private business the shares of major enterprises in exchange for their ? nancial support (Freeland, 2000). The debt auctions were a Rubicon separating two stages in the formation of the business elite. Up to this point the business elite consisted of ? nanciers who had enormous in? uence in the political world, but their role in the Russian economy was not particularly signi? cant. There was not much incentive to invest in industries that needed extensive modernisation before they could start to yield a pro? . After the Russian government had approved the principle of debt auctions major ? nanciers were able to invest their money more advantageously, strengthening their position in politics and in the economy. In this way, the owners of the banks that were allowed to engage in these activities in the mid-1990s became a group with genuine, rather than virtual economic power. Now their political authority was determined not by their connections in the corridors of power, but also by their real economic weight. The process by which the role of the major businessmen in society increased was clearly re? cted in the ratings of the country’s most in? uential public ? gures that appear regularly in the newspaper Nezavisimaya gazeta, based on expert surveys. The ? rst businessmen appeared in the list in 1996 (see Table 1). By 1997 they had achieved their maximum in? uence, and the leader of the groupdBoris Berezovskydwas regularly identi? ed as one of the country’s half-dozen most powerful individuals. One of the oligarchs, the head of Al’fa Bank Mikhail Fridman, spoke in this sense in an interview in 1997, soon after President Yeltsin had received him and his colleagues in the Kremlin. Imagine’, as he put it, ‘if President Gorbachev had met a businessman or two, it would have been meaningless, because their social status was so di? eren t. Just the fact that the meeting with Yeltsin took place shows how complete is the change in place and role of the business community in our social hierarchy. Now we occupy a very prestigious place’ (interview, 1997). In the ? rst years of their existence the oligarchs were a fairly small and united group, who represented not so much the entrepreneurial class as a whole as their own 298 O. Kryshtanovskaya, S. White / Communist and Post-Communist Studies 38 (2005) 293e307 Table 1 Oligarchs and their in? uence, 1996e2000 1996 1. Berezovsky B. A. 2. Potanin V. O. 3. Vyakhirev R. I. 4. Gusinsky V. A. 5. Khodorkovsky M. B. 6. Alekperov V. Yu. 7. Fridman M. M. 8. Aven P. I. 9. Abramovich R. A. 10. Mamut M. A. 11. Smolensky A. P. 12. Vinogradov V. V. 13. Nevzlin L. B. 14. Yevtushenkov V. No. of oligarchs included Average rating 98 84 e e e e e e e e e e e e 2 91 1997 6 20 13 15 28 25 e e e e 26 55 e e 8 24 1998 4 19 8 15 25 23 59 e e e 31 51 90 e 10 33 1999 5 53 12 19 72 26 94 98 29 e e e e 36 10 44 2000 4 47 7 15 60 26 54 39 5 21 e e e e 10 28 Source: Adapted from data supplied by the Vox Populi agency, as published regularly in Nezavisimaya gazeta; the list shows the place of Russian businessmen within the country’s 100 most in? uential individuals, in descending order of magnitude. narrowly corporate interests. Even their lobbying was directed not so much towards the adoption of laws in which Russian capital as a whole had a signi? cant stake, but towards the receipt of speci? c privileges for their own ? rms. The best known of the ? rst-wave oligarchs attempted not so much to de? ne the political direction of the country as to monitor personnel changes in the government. The idea of the allpowerful nature of the oligarchs in 1995e1996, indeed, was a myth that had been blown up by the media, and their real in? uence on politics was much more limited. The television executive Igor Malashenko, who had joined Yeltsin’s re-election campaign sta? in 1996, insisted later that stories about the ‘incredible power of the oligarchs’ were ‘pure nonsense’, and often encouraged by the oligarchs themselves to exaggerate the in? uence they could command (Nezavisimaya gazeta 3 June 1998: p. 8; Schroder, 1999). But behind the empty newspaper phrases a real process was ? oing on, marking the advance of an entire entrepreneurial class. The oligarchs of 1995e1997 were ambitious and naive. They enriched themselves so quickly that they began to su? er from what Stalin had called the ‘dizziness with success’; in particular, they engaged in open political adventures. They became deputies without any di? culty (which had the welco me advantage that it gave them immunity from prosecution). A few even stood for the presidency in 1991 (manager and banker Martin Shakkum), and again in 1996 (pharmaceuticals magnate Viktor Bryntsalov). But it soon became clear that politics was an expensive game for a business elite that had not yet established its own position, and the frontal attacks of the new Russians were succeeded by attempts to in? uence politics in a more systematic but indirect way. The business elite began to use the media for its purposes, as well as the opposition, trade unions and state o? cials. They started to O. Kryshtanovskaya, S. White / Communist and Post-Communist Studies 38 (2005) 293e307 299 buy insider information so as to use it in their business activities, and to in? ence the taking of particular economic decisions. The ? rst multimillionaires emerged at a time of considerable instability in the country’s power structures, and rose quickly to the very top. They understood all the advantages of their position as businessmen-politicians and played a dangerous game, ? nancing political organisations and the mass media. Their rise coincided with the privatisation of state property and w as accelerated by the re-election of Boris Yeltsin in 1996; afterwards, some of the most prominent oligarchs formed a part of the Kremlin ‘Family’ itself. Pappe, one of the ? rst to study this process, has argued that ‘Up to 1998 all the most powerful economic groupings increased their resources as compared with those available to the power structures’. But from the end of the year and particularly after the August ? nancial crisis the whole process ‘went into reverse’, and soon there was not a single industrial group (with the possible exception of the massive gas corporation Gazprom) that was in a position to in? uence government or even deal with it on equal terms (Pappe, 2000: p. 46). The August crisis and the fall of the oligarchs The August crisis of 1998 and the sudden devaluation of the rouble that accompanied it led to an upheaval in the entire society, including the business elite. Indeed, on our evidence, only 15% of the 1993 business elite had retained their position by 2001. There are several reasons for this far-reaching turnover. In the ? rst place, there had been structural changes in the volatile Russian market. If before 1998 it had been dominated by ? nancial structures (banks, exchanges and investment corporations), after the crisis their role signi? cantly contracted. The speculative sector of the economy was almost destroyed by the August crisis, and did not recover. Goods exchanges, which at one time had ? ourished, disappeared almost entirely, and the number of banks fell sharply. But in the post-crisis period industrial enterprises emerged much more prominently, and they have continued to do so. These changes were re? ected in the composition of the business elite, which came increasingly to consist of entrepreneurs (by 2001 they accounted for as much as 64% of the total). What happened to the 85% of the 1993 business elite who had not retained their position in 2001? According to our evidence, most entrepreneurs who had been members of the 1993 business elite retained their positions in business (52%), but in many cases their scale of activity no longer allowed them to be included in the list of the country’s leading businessmen. Of the remainder, 6% became professional politicians and by 2001 were working full-time in parliament or in government. Nine percent had retired on a pension; these were mostly bankers who had headed commercial, formerly state banks in the early years of economic reform. A further 10% of the 1993 business elite had moved abroad, for the most part in order to protect their personal security, and two had been killed: the head of the Russian Business Round Table Ivan Kivelidi, and the head of the ‘21st Century Association’ Otari Kvantrishvili. 300 O. Kryshtanovskaya, S. White / Communist and Post-Communist Studies 38 (2005) 293e307 There were related changes in the kinds of individuals that composed the business elite. A comparison of the data for 1993 and 2001 makes clear that it has become somewhat younger; its average age fell to 48. years as compared with 51. 8 years in 1993, shortly after the end of communist rule. As before, it is an overwhelminglydindeed exclusivelydmale group. A quarter of the business elite of 2001, fewer than before, came from Moscow or St Petersburg, rather more are from other cities (33%), and even more came from small towns or villages (42%). The reason for the greater provincialism of the business elite is the structural changes that have taken place in its composition; Moscow ? nanciers have to a large extent been replaced by regional industrialists. The occupational and educational background of the business elite has also been changing. In 1993 it was typical to enter business from science as well as industry itself, but by 2001 it was more common to migrate from the state service as well as industry (see Table 2). The entrepreneurs of 2001 were also more educated than their predecessors: just 3% had two degrees in 1993 but now 13% have a second quali? cation, often in law. The social and professional background of the new business elite leaves little doubt that it is still closely connected with the political elite of the Soviet period. Some 29% of the current business elite, for instance, belonged to the Soviet nomenklatura, a ? gure that was actually somewhat higher than it had been 8 years earlier in the immediate aftermath of communist rule. Similar processes have been identi? ed on the basis of survey evidence (Chernysh, 1994; Eyal et al. , 1998). But while the business elite of 1993 were typically of Komsomol origin, now the main source of recruitment of the business elite is government ministries (Table 3). Immediately before they entered the business elite, its members were enterprise directors (25%), state o? ials (20%), employees of private ? rms (27%), sta? from state banks (6%), and others. This was a career progression that was characteristic of the post-communist period. Formerly, the usual retirement destination of a senior public ? gure was the diplomatic service. Now, more often than not, former state o? cials after their retirement become top managers in major corporations. This tendency ? rst made itself apparent in 1992e1993, when a series of members of the government moved to work in commercial structures. They included Petr Aven, who moved from the Ministry of Foreign Economic Relations to the Table 2 Origins of the Russian business elite, 1993e2001 Sphere of activity Industry Science Culture and education Study [ ] State banks State service Other (N ) 1993 35 26 15 0 17 0 39 (115) 2001 50 14 4 13 7 16 30 (131) Source: Authors’ data. The totals include all the spheres in which the respective business elite were active; ‘study’ indicates direct entry into the business elite on completion of higher education. O. Kryshtanovskaya, S. White / Communist and Post-Communist Studies 38 (2005) 293e307 Table 3 Nomenklatura origins of the Russian business elite, 1993e2001 (percentages) 1993 No nomenklatura background Nomenklatura background Of which: Komsomol apparatus CPSU apparatus Soviet executives Senior ministerial positions 76 24 11 4 5 10 301 2001 71 29 7 4 5 12 Source: As Table 2. Those with a nomenklatura background in 1993 exceed the total shown as many members of the business elite worked in more than one position of this kind. residency of Al’fa Bank; Maksim Boiko, who left the State Property Commission to become general director of the advertising group Video International; and Viktor Ilyushin, the former head of Yeltsin’s presidential sta? and then a ? rst deputy prime minister, who moved into the state gas monopoly Gazprom. In other movements, Andrei Kozyrev went from the Foreign Ministry to the American company ICN Pharmaceuticals; Petr Mostovoi moved from the Federal Ban kruptcy Service to become ? rst vice-president of the diamond company Alrosa; Alfred Kokh, who had been ? st deputy chairman of the State Property Commission and deputy premier, became head of the Montes Auri company; and Oleg Sysuev, who had been deputy prime minister and before that mayor of Samara, became vice-president of Al’fa Bank. Subsequently the process became a much more general one. Over the entire post-communist period there have been substantial changes in the way in which the country’s leading entrepreneurs have entered business. In 1993e 1995 the most common way of establishing a successful commercial company was the creation by a state o? cial of a ? rm into which he could move directly. We call this process ‘moving chairs’; it was one of the ways in which the former ruling group exchanged their power for property. Instead of the ‘diplomatic exile’ of the Soviet period, a new means of retirement developeddmoving into business. Firms that were set up on this basis soon ? lled up with highly placed retirees. As we were frequently told in our interviews with former party o? cials and the senior sta? of government ministries, only ‘our own people’ were given appointments in ? rms of this kind, which had typically evolved from ministries and government bodies of the Soviet period. The next most common means of exchanging power for property was when a state body delegated the right to conduct commercial activity to its authorised representatives. The leading positions in these companies were then ? lled with young people who were not directly related to the Soviet nomenklatura, or who held only junior positions within it. And ? nally, the third common means of establishing a successful business was the privatisation of former state enterprises. In most cases 3 We rely in this instance on the interviews conducted for our ‘Transformation of the Russian elite’ project between 2000 and 2004 (450 interviews). 02 O. Kryshtanovskaya, S. White / Communist and Post-Communist Studies 38 (2005) 293e307 the enterprise that had become a joint stock company did not change its managers (or did not do so immediately) and the director remained at his post, no longer simply the manager but now the owner of the enterprise over which he presided. In 1993 the most characteristic route into business was through the creation of a ? rm of one’s own by the use of o? cial position (57% of the business elite); by 2001 it was more common for members of the business elite to create their own ? ms through the privatisation of state enterprises (39%). Business and politics After the crisis, not only the business elite had changed: its in? uence upon the political process had also changed. The ‘old’ oligarchs of the Yeltsin period retired into the shadows, yielding their place to a new generation of entrepreneurs. These ‘new Russians’ were more provincial, more closely associated with domestic industry, and not so naively ambitious. The insecurity of the ? rst-wave oligarchs, who had su? ered because of their proximity to the regime, taught them to be cautious. The new oligarchs avoided public life and boasting about their wealth, but sought to establish ? rmer, less conspicuous relations with the authorities at all levels, acting more often than not through intermediaries. The destruction of the media empires of Berezovsky and Gusinsky, both of whom had been forced into exile, made it clear that the post-Yeltsin regime would not allow itself to be blackmailed, and that only groups that cooperated with government would be allowed to acquire important media holdings. The new motto was loyalty. But these changes in the political context did not mean that entrepreneurs withdrew into obscurity. Their in? uence changed in form, but all the same remained signi? cant. It was no longer individual mavericksdthe Borovois, Bryntsalovs and Berezovskysdwho stood out on the political arena, but a series of more shadowy ? gures representing the most powerful corporationsdGazprom, Lukoil, Yukos, Al’fa and so forth. Of the ‘old’ oligarchy, only the Al’fa group were still well represented on the political scene in the early years of the new century; two of its senior managers, for instance, took positions as deputy heads of the presidential administration in 1999 (Vyacheslav Surkov and Sergei Abramov). Al’fa people accounted at this time for an entire contingent of the presidential administration on Old Square in Moscow, where they occupied key positions as high-level consultants or department heads. However, notwithstanding the fact that the personal in? uence of the ? rst-wave oligarchs declined considerably, the role of major businessmen in society tended to increase still further. In Table 4 we set out our evidence for the Yeltsin (1993) and Putin (2001, 2003) leaderships, examining the proportion of key decision-making positions that are held by individuals from the world of big business in each of these periods. In almost every category the proportion of business representatives has increased and across all categories the representation of business more than trebled, reaching a remarkable 20% of government ministers. The minister of fuel and energy, for instance, was a representative of Yukos in 1998e1999 (Sergei Generalov), and was O. Kryshtanovskaya, S. White / Communist and Post-Communist Studies 38 (2005) 293e307 Table 4 Business representation in elite groups (percentages) Top leadership Yeltsin cohort (1993) Putin cohort (2001) Putin cohort (2003) Source: As Table 2. 2. 3 15. 7 9. 1 Duma deputies 12. 8 17. 3 17. Government 0. 0 4. 2 20. 0 Regional elite 2. 6 8. 1 12. 5 303 Overall 4. 4 9. 3 14. 7 a representative of Lukoil in 2000 (Alexander Gavrin). Another ? gure from the Al’fa group, Andrei Popov, was head of the territorial department of the presidential administration, where he served side by side with his Al’fa colleagues Surkov and Abramov. Business in the Russian regions The oligarchy strengthened its position even more considerably in the Russian regions than in the federal centre. The crisis that followed the collapse of the currency in August 1998 a? ected Moscow oligarchs more than their provincial counterparts. The Yeltsin oligarchy collapsed, but in the regions the merger of business and politics continued. The August crisis, in fact, accelerated the process. Ruined Moscow businessmen closed their regional o? ces; in turn, they were taken over by local administrations or by the companies they controlled. There was, in e? ect, a new redistribution of property in 1998e2000. Property was removed from its former owners in exchange for the cancellation of debts, in either of two forms: the return of ownership to the state itself (nationalisation), or the replacement of one private owner by another (reprivatisation). Both of these methods were actively employed by local leaderships throughout the federation. The velvet nationalisation of the post-crisis period took place under the guidance of local authorities. The ? rst experiment of this kind was carried out by Evgenii Mikhailov, governor of Pskov region who introduced a monopoly in the production and wholesale trade of alcohol (Slider, 1999). The ? rst state unitary enterprise ‘Pskovalko’ was established for these purposes. The model proved extremely e? ctive, and over the following year eight more such enterprises were established, including ‘Pskovobllesprom’, ‘Pskovtorf’, ‘Pskovvtorma’ and others. To assist the newly established state enterprises local enterprises were deprived of their productive assets in return for the cancellation of tax arrears. Regional tax inspectors were encouraged to identify as many of these indebted enterprises as possible, and defaulters were forced into bankrup tcy so that their property could be taken over by local state enterprisesdin e? ect, by local administrations. Mikhailov’s actions were so much to the advantage of local elites that his approach was immediately adopted throughout the country, leading to the establishment of large numbers of local monopolies modelled on the national gas and energy monopolies. It was not only local political leaderships that forced Moscow oligarchs out of the regions. Local entrepreneurs who were friendly with or even related to local 304 O. Kryshtanovskaya, S. White / Communist and Post-Communist Studies 38 (2005) 293e307 leaderships were also involved in the process. In Kursk, for instance, overnor Alexander Rutskoi handed the region’s network of chemists’ shops to his elder son Dmitrii, making him the general director of ‘Kurskpharmacy’. The governor’s younger son became a manager of the oil concern ‘Kurskneftekhim’, 49% of which was owned by a Moscow ? rm whose director was the same younger son. The governor’s brothers were also fortunate: the eld er became head of a state-joint stock company ‘Faktor’, and the younger became deputy head of the regional department of public security. The governor’s mother became the cofounder of a local ? m, and his father in law took over responsibility for the region’s cultural a? airs (these details are drawn from the National News Service at nns. ru). Reprivatisation and the strengthening of the local oligarchy have been taking place in all the Russian regions. It has acquired especially large dimensions in the national republics, where forms of authoritarian rule have become increasingly prominent. In Bashkortostan, to take another example, an entire clan of presidential relatives has come into existence. The president’s son, Ural Rakhimov, was vicepresident of the oil and gas company ‘Bashneftekhim’ in the early years of the new century; a relative of the president’s wife, Azat Kurmanaev, was president of ‘Bashkreditbank’; and the president’s wife, Luisa Rakhimov, held a senior position in the republic’s ministry of foreign relations and trade. The nationalisation of the Bashkir economy was also advancing rapidly, with the establishment of state monopolies in key spheres such as ‘Bashlesprom’ (timber), ‘Bashkirskaya toplivnaya kompaniya’ (fuel) and ‘Bashavtotrans’ (transportation) ( ns. ru). By 2000 the power of regional oligarchs had strengthened to such an extent that they began to expand economically in neighbouring regions. Regional oligarchs began to appear, with interests that spanned several of the subjects of the federation. In this process, new ? nancial and industrial groups came in to existence that had no connection with the ? rst-wave Moscow oligarchy. A striking example of this type was Aleksei Mordashov, general director of the ‘Severstal’’ joint stock company (based in Cherepovets in the Vologda region), who entered the list of the country’s most in? ential businessmen at the end of the 1990s. The same kind of interregional expansion was being carried out by entrepreneurs from Sverdlovsk and Samara regions, and Bashkortostan. New holding companies on a transregional scale that have emerged in recent years include the Urals mining and metallurgical company, Novolipets metallurgical combine, and the St Petersburg concern ‘New Programmes and Conceptions’. The increasing economic power of regional entrepreneurs was re? ected in their political in? uence. In local elections throughout the country it became apparent that electors preferred to vote for major businessmen, and for the directors of joint stock companies and of the region’s biggest factories. In the elections that took place in the late 1990s representatives of the industrial and ? nancial elite took 80% of seats in the Perm’ region, about 70% in Smolensk region, about 60% in Penza, Tambov and Tomsk regions, and more than half in Belgorod, Leningrad, Nizhnii Novgorod, Omsk, Rostov and Stavropol’ regions, and in Primorskii territory. The average, across all the regions that held their elections between 1995 and 1997, was 43% (calculated from Vybory, 1998). An increase in the political role of local oligarchs led O. Kryshtanovskaya, S. White / Communist and Post-Communist Studies 38 (2005) 293e307 305 at the same time to a fall in the electoral role of civil society. The more oligarchs and o? cials in local legislatures, the fewer teachers, doctors and farmers. The election of representatives of the ? ancial-industrial elite to representative institutions of this kind demonstrates that the tendency for regional capital and government to merge has become increasingly powerful. The increase in the in? uence of ? nancial-industrial circles in Russian towns and cities is paralleled by the increasing in? uence of state-farm directors in the countryside. As a result, in all regional legislatures the directors of joint stock companies, and of unitary enterprises, banks and other commercial structures, have become the dom inant force. New entrepreneurs, within this general tendency, have themselves become more numerous, squeezing out longer-established factory managers throughout the regions and especially where relatively large numbers of local enterprises are in ? nancial di? culty. Owners and managers, according to local legislation, are allowed to combine their entrepreneurial activities provided their representative duties are carried out on a part-time basis. In this way, they have obtained a series of legislative and supervisory prerogatives but at the same time been relieved of the burdens of full-time legislative duties. The increasing in? uence of business on regional politics is also apparent in the formation of local administrations. With every year, for instance, the number of businessmen-governors increases. The ‘? rst swallow’ was Kalmykia, where the wellknown entrepreneur Kirsan Ilyumzhinov was elected president as early as 1993. In 1996 three local oligarchs became governors: Yuri Evdokimov in Murmansk (where he had represented the interests of the Moscow mayor’s group ‘Sistema’), Leonid Gorbenko in Kaliningrad, and Vladimir Butov in the Nenets autonomous region. The elections of 2000e2001 added several more, including heads of the most important local enterprises: in Chukotka the head of Sibneft’ and owner of Chelsea Football Club, Roman Abramovich (in 2000); in Taimyr the head of Noril’sk Nickel, Alexander Khloponin (elected in 2001 and then a year later as governor of Krasnoyarsk territory); and in Evenki Boris Zolotarev, head of development at the oil giant ‘Yukos’ (in 2001). In Krasnodar territory, the Koryak autonomous district and Primor’e local oligarchs had further successes: Alexander Tkachev, Vladimir Loginov (December 2000) and Sergei Dar’kin (in 2001). In early 2002 there were two further successes of this kind, Vyacheslav Shtyrov won in Sakha (Yakutia), and Hazret Sovmen in Adygeya. As a result of these changes, 12 Russian regions (or nearly 14% of the total) are today headed by major businessmen. Conclusions Several new tendencies in the development of the Russian business elite had become apparent by the early years of the new century. 1. Powerful ? nancial-industrial groups have begun to appear that are based not in Moscow but in the Russian provinces, and which are furthering the process of inter-regional integration. At the same time the transfer of the business and 306 O. Kryshtanovskaya, S. White / Communist and Post-Communist Studies 38 (2005) 293e307 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. political activities of the business elite from the capital to the regions has been accompanied by an increase in the role of the state, which has taken steps to restore its control over political and economic life. The strengthening of the state has placed tighter limits on the business elite and restricted its freedom of activity, which has led to a reduction in its direct in? ence on the political process. This relates particularly to personnel matters, where the state has taken back the role of principal decision-maker, and to the mass media. By the early years of the new century the business elite were making fewer attempts to impose their own preferences upon government ‘from outside’, but were engaged in a process of interaction with all levels of government in which they could introduce their own priorities as issues were formulated and decisions were taken. From 1998 onwards there has been a further exclusion of Moscow capital from the regions and an increase in the concentration of power at the regional level. At the same time in a series of the republics the fusion of business and government has advanced even further, as has the formation of local oligarchies. Sometimes this process has assumed autocratic forms in which big business in a region has come under the absolute control not of the state, but of its leading o? cials, who have formed ? ancial-industrial clans enjoying an e? ective monopoly of political power. The interests of big business have changed. If before they were simply connected with privileges for their companies, now with the increase in the scale of their operation they have begun to press their views in relation to the regulation of the economy as a whole. This has led to an increase in the economic in? uence of private business, which has to some extent compensated for their loss of political in? uence. With the coming to power of Vladimir Putin in 2000 private entrepreneurs have begun to be excluded from the main electronic media. The destruction of the media holdings of Gusinsky and Berezovsky, and the arrest of Mikhail Khodorkovsky in late 2003, were intended to show ‘who’s boss’. The new regime made it clear it would not be blackmailed, as Boris Yeltsin had been; and formerly oppositional media were entrusted to groups that had shown their loyalty. In the period after the August 1998 crisis big business became a refuge for many retired politicians, with a substantial out? w of senior o? cials, ministers and civil servants into the managerial ranks of the major companies. Putin’s declared policy of ‘equal distancing’ for the oligarchs means a choice: either to support the regime in all its undertakings, or retire to the sidelines. No longer can Russia’s business elite establish their own parties and engage in open criticism of the go vernment. The new regime is engaged in restoring state power, after a period in which it had been privatised by o? cials and businessmen. In this new social order there is no place for opposition, unpredictable elections, or insubordinate nouveaux riches; rather, the preferred model is analogous to the cheibols in South Koreadenormous economic conglomerates whose activity is closely regulated. The further concentration of capital in the hands of 20e25 ? nancial-industrial groups that are completely loyal to the state appears to be the economic project of the Putin regime as it moves into its second and ? nal term of o? ce. O. Kryshtanovskaya, S. White / Communist and Post-Communist Studies 38 (2005) 293e307 307 References Ashin, G. K. , Ponedelkov, A. V. , Ignatov, V. G. , Starostin, A. M. , 1999. Osnovy Politicheskoi Elitologii. Prior, Moscow. Beard, M. , 1938. A History of the Business Man. Macmillan, New York. Chernysh, M. F. , 1994. Sotsial’naya mobil’nost’v 1986e1993 godakh. Sotsiologicheskii Zhurnal 2, 130e133. Eyal, G. , Szelenyi, I. , Townsley, E. , 1998. Making Capitalism without Capitalists: Class Formation and Elite Struggles in Post-Communist Central Europe. Verso, London. Freeland, C. , 2000. Sale of the Century. Little, Brown, London. Gill, G. , 1998. Democratization, the bourgeoisie and Russia. Government and Opposition 33 (3), 307e329. Ho? an, D. E. , 2002. The Oligarchs: Wealth and Power in the New Russia. Public A? airs, New York. K’eza, D. , 1997. Proshchai, Rossiya! Geya, Moscow. Khlebnikov, P. , 2000. Godfather of the Kremlin: Boris Berezovsky and the Looting of Russia. Harcourt, New York. Kukolev, I. V. , 1995a. Formirovanie rossiiskoi biznes-elity. Sotsiologicheskii Zhurnal 3, 159 e169. Kukolev, I. V. , 1995b. Sovremennaya biznes-elita Rossii. Vestnik Moskovskogo Universiteta, ser. 18: Sotsiologiya i Politologiya 4, 12e22. Kukolev, I. V. , 1996. Formirovanie biznes-elity. Obshchestvennye Nauki i Sovremennost’ 2, 12e23. Kryshtanovskaya, O. V. , 1996. Finansovaya oligarkhiya Rossii. Izvestiya 10 January, 5. Kryshtanovskaya, O. V. , 2002a. Biznes-elita i oligarkhi: itogi desyatiletiya. Mir Rossii 4, 3e60. Kryshtanovskaya, O. V. , 2002b. Transformatsiya biznes-elity Rossii: 1998e2002. Sotsiologicheskie Issledovaniya 8, 17e29. Martynova, M. Yu. , 2001. Politicheskaya elita Rossii na Rubezhe Vekov. Pomorskii Gosudarstvennyi Universitet, Archangel. Mawdsley, E. , White, S. , 2000. The Soviet Political Elite from Lenin to Gorbachev: The Central Committee and its Members, 1917e1991. Oxford University Press, Oxford. Michels, R. , 1959. Political Parties. Dover, New York. Mukhin, A. A. , 2001. Biznes-elita i Gosudarstvennaya vlast’. Gnom i D, Moscow. Mukhin, A. A. , 2004. ‘‘Osobaya Papka’’ Vladimira Putina. Itogi Pervogo Prezidentskogo Sroka i Otnosheniya s Krupnymi Sobstvennikami. Tsentr Politicheskoi Informatsii, Moscow. Osipov, G. V. (Ed. ), 1998. Rossiiskii Sotsiologicheskii Slovar’. Norma, Moscow. Pappe, Ya. Sh. , 2000. ‘Oligarkhi’: Ekonomicheskaya Khronika, 1992e2000. Vysshaya Shkola Ekonomiki, Moscow. Rutland, P. (Ed. ), 2001. Business and State in Contemporary Russia. Westview, Boulder, CO. Schroder, H. -H. , 1999. El’tsin and the oligarchs: the role of ? ancial groups in Russian politics between ? 1993 and July 1998. Europe-Asia Studies 51 (6), 957e988. Silverman, B. , Yanowitch, M. , 2000. New Rich, New Poor, New Russia: Winners and Losers on the Russian Road to Capitalism, expanded ed. Sharpe, Armonk NY. Slider, D. , 1999. Pskov under the LDPR: elections and dysfun ctional federalism in one region. EuropeAsia Studies 51 (5), 755e767. Toshchenko, Zh. T. , 1999. Elita? Klany? Kasty? Kliki? Kak nazvat’ tekh, kto pravit nami? Sotsiologicheskie Issledovaniya 11, 123e133. Vybory, 1998. Vybory v Zakonodatel’nye (Predstavitel’nye) Organy Gosudarstvennoi Vlasti Sub’’ektov Rossiiskoi Federatsii. 995e1997. Ves’ mir, Moscow. de Vries, M. K. , Shekshnia, S. , Korotov, K. , Florent-Treacy, E. , 2004. The New Russian Business Leaders. 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Research data analysis Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Research data analysis - Assignment Example These organizations main objective is to enhance their business. To achieve the expansion in the business different types of companies focus on various issues. The majority of the issues focused in the process of boosting up the business, the following areas are focused: Evidence is available which supports that appropriately qualified managers and leaders make substantial difference in the business of any company. If they are not much trained then even on job training may be helpful in enhancing the performance (Margerison 1992). At the same time capacity building of the staff members has also got an important role in boosting any business. If this training activity is based on needs assessment then it influences more (E-HR 2006) (Tucker 2004). Moreover, if a learning analysis model is used then the efficiency at the training or workshop increases to a greater extent (Dorsett 2006). Proper management of finances and then investing them in appropriate way at right time has been very successful in pushing the business on upward track. So, essentially a substantial level of data support the possibility of good cost management results in better outcomes (Peccei 2004). To keep an eye on the progress of a business company, an effective monitoring strategy is needed. This strategy may focus on the performance of the employees in the office or field or the quality of the product by approaching the customer and then getting feedback from them. For good working class of employees any activity which relates to the performance appraisal is readily accepted by the staff and they take it as a positive point. So good appraisal is helpful in improving the level of confidence and eventually performance on the side of the employees (Tinkham 1993). The satisfaction of the consumer is key factor for the enhancement of any business. All the companies who make it a frequent practice to get some feedback from their customer and then work accordingly, they improve substantially. The effect of customer feedback is very important (Olorunniwo 2006). Data Analysis Qualitative section Themes and categories Poor staffing When the manager was hired and he joined the company, there was problem of shortage of staffing and other issues related to human resource, administration and logistics. He dealt with all these issues gradually. Training of staff and re-investment For the better functioning and upgradation of the company, the company needed capacity building of the staff in related areas and also investment with the capital which was taken care of accordingly. Competitors In the business community, competition with other companies is an important and continuous issue. There are ways of addressing this issue. The manager's option was working in the field in a cooperative manner with other competitors instead of using destructive ways. Consumer rights The company's priority has been the business with focus on the confidence of the consumers. Monitoring system To keep him and other workers at the company informed about the progress of the company with the response of the consumer, the company has established a system of monitoring with the help of surveys and comments from the consumers. This has been helpful in identifying any

Migrant labors workers abuse Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Migrant labors workers abuse - Essay Example The most astonishing part is that these workers usually belong to poor countries of the world. They migrate in order to identify better working opportunities. But usually what the find is extreme hard work without full compensation of their struggles. This subsequently raises a question that why migrant labor workers rights are abused? Here, it will be argued that the primary reason for such massive mistreatment is the workers association with poor and under developed countries. The UAE’s construction boom which was started in early 2000 was a huge source of recruitment for labor workers from all over the world and specifically from poor countries. It was reported that more than 500,000 labor workers employed by different construction companies were migrants from countries such as Pakistan, India and Bangladesh. Moreover, the country’s 95% workforce constituted of these migrant workers. It is a harsh reality that the huge towers of UAE are actually built while sacrificing the rights of thousands of poor people (UAE: Workers Abused in Construction Boom, 2006). One of the major construction projects undergoing in UAE is Saadiyat Island. This project is owned by UAE’s Tourists Development and Investment Company (TDIC). International news agencies have observed that the company is not abiding by its own employment rules and regulations. Hence majority of its workers are actually living and working in extreme conditions. On the other hand if they try to take action then company expels them out. The situation is even worse at the building site of New York University’s campus in UAE (Batty, 2013). It has been identified that the construction companies are actually confiscating the migrant workers passports while reducing their chances to move out of UAE. Moreover, TDIC pledged to provide accommodation to its workers in Saadiyat’s village but the labor workers are living in inferior conditions in

Martin Luther King Jr Letter from Birmingham Jail Essay

Martin Luther King Jr Letter from Birmingham Jail - Essay Example The letter begins with King’s address to his â€Å"dear† clergymen, a group of white moderate preachers who had denounced the activist’s most recent protests – the ones which had landed him in jail – as â€Å"unwise and untimely.† The fact that King deigns to respond to these men, particularly as he goes on to explain that he is inundated with criticism daily, shows several things: primarily that he is not so passionate about his cause as to be blindly angry against those who do not entirely understand it, and who therefore may be converted. King is patient and reasoned, even though (as he explains later in the letter) he has reason enough to be outraged. This politeness extends through what is otherwise a rousing and accusatory epistle. Rather than denouncing the white clergymen for their role in hindering black rights, King refers to them as his friends, and couches his arguments for nonviolent protesting in indirect and passive language: for example, â€Å"Lamentably, it is an historical fact that privileged groups seldom give up their privileges voluntarily.† King understands that the white clergymen expect savagery from him, and responds with a civility which is far more likely to win their minds to the cause of black rights.

Changes in the Worldview

Changes in the Worldview WHAT IS WORLDVIEW? In basic terms world view is a concept where a person/individual or a group or a culture reacts or interacts with the world using different ideas and frameworks. Worldviews forms social values and these values create social or individual behavior. These behaviors further create different cultures. So, basically worldview of a particular culture may be different from another culture. Worldview has changed during the past a lot of times. During the premodern era the worldview had a metaphysical concept meaning the era was focused on spiritual beliefs and as the era changed, then came the modern era. As the beliefs changed in modern era so did the worldview. During the modern era society started changing their believes and dropped the idea of spiritual beliefs to humanity, here and now and physical reality. Then came the era which we call postmodern era which is the system of thoughts and beliefs being accepted and embraced after the modern age and it focused on humanism, science educat ion etc. There were a lot of changes in the western worldview over time as there are a lot of factors that help the worldview to change, for example: Social systems Political and economic system Culture The change in the western worldview could be categorized in 3 eras, the pre-modern era, the modern era and the post-modern era. There were a timely change in the worldview of how the society thinks and what does it accept which led to the change in worldviews. According to one author Christianity changed the pagan word because Christians were faithful and were even willing to die for their beliefs and morality. And thus, even Constantine legalized Christianity in AD 313. Once it was legalized chritians started following their beliefs, one of which was human being were create by the image of god. After the middle age, it was the beginning of the era what we call renaissance. It basically started when European scholar discovered classic documents and new idea to look at the world. Few events such as the Black death also brought changes to the worldview, people start believing that the cause was a result of the alignment of planets and some believes that it was a punishment of god and those who survived had a chance to leave their farmland and move to cities which in todays era we call urbanization. After the renaissance or modern era came the modernism and it rejected the post-modernism as it failed to answer humanities most troublesome problems. The objective of ethics according the Christian ethic is that few standards are visible throughout human attitude towards morality. Even though secular philosophers treat all moral ethics as relative, even they have some ethical values such as love, justice and courage. The basic importance of ethics to worldview is that ethics always comes with philosophies and philosophies are shaped by the worldview. So, to create ethics we use philosophies and to shape philosophies we need to understand the worldview. The solution for humans ethical dilemmas can affect ones worldview. The human in todays world are left with two choices between two evils: Believe at least some people will believes the values at judgments to be objective Or no one believe it. Selecting the second option means debunking all the moral and ethical values which is a new point of view and lead to a new worldview. The common aspect between the book and the articles is that all the author are conveying a message about worldview, morals and ethics and the transition of one worldview to another over a period. The ways of conveying the message are different but few things are similar between the book and the article which are morality, ethics etc. C.S Lewis in his book The Abolition of Man has a bit different approach to explain this concept. He uses human and nature to explain the worldview and ethics. He also explains the concept of Tao, a Chinese word for the realm of objective value as the basis for traditional morality. (Lewis, 1943) References Lewis, C. S. (1986). The abolition of man, or, Reflections on education with special reference to the teaching of English in the upper forms of schools. Retrieved January 16, 2017 Christian Ethics. (n.d.). Retrieved January 16, 2017, from http://www.allaboutworldview.org/christian-ethics.html Zacharia, R. (2016, December 20). The Death of Truth and a Postmortem. Retrieved January 16, 2017, from http://rzim.org/global-blog/the-death-of-truth-and-a-postmortem/ Anderson, K. (2016, August 07). Worldviews Through History Compared to a Christian View. Retrieved January 16, 2017, from www.probe.org/worldviews-through-history/ Smilde, A. (2015, June 3). LEWISIANA: Summary of C. S. Lewis, The Abolition of Man. Retrieved January 16, 2017, from http://lewisiana.nl/abolsum/index.html

Heroism in Ayn Rands The Fountainhead Essay -- Ayn Rand Fountainhead

Heroism in The Fountainhead  Ã‚         The Fountainhead is a story about heroism. The novel is a triumphant cry of protest against all those who insist that life is about mediocrity. That man is destined to suffer. The greatness of The Fountainhead lies in its ability to inspire hope and confidence in its readers, to show how much is possible. For more than fifty years now, people all over the world have been looking towards this great book for support and sanction, for encouragement and hope, for ideas and answers. The Fountainhead applauds strength and greatness in human spirit, giving its readers a hero they can admire, respect, idolize and love. Howard Roark -- the hero, the ideal man, the human being. When Roark said in the courtroom, "Independence is the only gauge of human virtue and value, what a man is and makes of himself, not what he has or hasn't for others", he summarized the whole philosophy in these handful of words. To Roark, independence meant everything. From this one value of his arose all his other values and qualities. To him, there was no substitute and no alternative to independence. He held no authority above the judgement of his mind, he held no one higher than himself. Roark felt a fundamental indifference towards others -- he cared two hoots about what the world thought of him. The people Roark chose as friends and comrades all shared this basic quality - independence. His teacher, Henry Cameron, was a fiercely independent man. So were Steven Mallory, Austen Heller, Mike Donnigan and Gail Wynand. Roark's only hallmark of a man was his independence, or the lack of it. His 'enemies', the men who hated Roark, yet recognised his greatness, were all dependents and parasites. Peter Keating thirsted... ...ife as Keating and Toohey saw it. A choice between life as it "ought to be" and life as it is. The Fountainhead is more than a story about heroism. It is a story about a way of life. It will continue to be the most inspiring book of all times and will continue to hit readers with its immortal philosophy and tremendous courage. It will continue to offer answers. The choice is ours. Works Cited and Consulted Berliner, Michael S., ed. Letters of Ayn Rand. By Ayn Rand. New York: Dutton, 1995. Maslow, A.H. (1968) Toward a Psychology of Being. New York: Van Nostrand. Peikoff, Leonard. The Philosophy of Objectivism, A Brief Summary. Stein and Day, 1982. Rand, Ayn. The Fountainhead. New York: Plume, 1994. Rogers, C.R. (1980) A Way of Being. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Walker, Jeff. The Ayn Rand Cult. Carus Publishing Company, 1999